ECON 101:
US Interest Rate Down = 
China Exchange Rate Up !
|
||||
***
| HomePage | Huns | Turks & Uygurs | Tibetans | Koreans | Khitans | Manchurians | Mongolians | Taiwanese | Ryukyu | Japanese | Vietnamese |
| Pre-History | Xia-Shang | Zhou | Qin | Han | 3 States | Jinn | 16 Nations | South-North | Sui-Tang | 5 Plus 10 States | Song | Liao | Xi Xia | Jurchen | Yuan | Ming | Qing |
| Tragedy Of Chinese Revolution | Terrors | Wars | China: Caste Society | Anti-Rightists | Cultural Revolution | 6-4 Massacre | Land Enclosure | FaLunGong |
|
|||||||||||||
Escape from Hengyang by Qiong Yao |
SONG DYNASTYFor hundreds of years, the Song Dynasty, built on top of Northern Zhou (AD 951-960) of the Cai(1) family, would be engaged in the games of 'three kingdom' kind of warfares. Northern Song (AD 960-1127) would face off with the Western Xia (AD 1032-1227) and Khitan Liao in a triangle. After a defeat by the Khitans, Song Dynasty never tried to retake Peking [Beijing] again. (Posterior Tang general Shi Jingtang, a Shatuo, in order to fight Posterior Tang, had seceded 16 zhou or prefectures to the Khitans, including today's Beijing city. It would be Ming Dynasty that would overthrow the Mongol Yuan Dynasty and retake Beijing.) Song Dynasty played the card of allying with the Jurchens in destroying the Khitan Liao. With Northern Song defeated by the Jurchens thereafter, Southern Song (AD 1127-1279) would be engaged in another triangle game, with the other players being Western Xia and the Jurchen Jin. Southern Song would then play the card of allying with the Mongols in destroying Jurchen Jin, and it even sent tens of thousands of carts of grain to the Mongol army in the besieging of the last Jurchen stronghold. Soon after that, the Southern Song generals broke the agreement with the Mongols and took over the so-called three old capitals of Kaifeng, Luoyang and Chang'an. But they could not hold on to any of the three because what they had occupied had been empty cities after years of warfare between the Jurchens and the Mongols. Similar to the times of the Western Jinn (AD 265-316) and Eastern Jinn (AD 317-420), the northern Chinese would have fled to the south during these conflicts. While Eastern Jinn re-established their capital in Nanking, the Southern Song, driven away from Nanking by the Jurchens, chose Lin'an (today's Hangzhou) as the new capital. Historians had a good conclusion for Song Dynasty: Song Dynasty, per Mongol General Bayan, had obtained the throne from a kid and would lose it in the hands of a kid. Song obtained its kingdom from a child emperor of Northern Zhou, and it officially ended when Prime Minister Lu Xiufu jumped off the cliffs of Mt Yashan with child emperor on his back. Song Dynasty enjoyed the start of the so-called prosperous 'Silk Road' on the seas. Historians cited European historian's claim that southern Chinese developed overseas commerce as a compensation for the loss of the land route after losing northern China to the Jurchens, with ships built in coastal Canton & Quanzhou carrying as many as 1000 people. Across Southeast Asian islands, wreckage of numerous Song Chinese merchant ships had been discovered, with typical Chinese products like potteries as well as Chinese coins. The adoption of compass in AD 1119, an invention first mentioned in 1st year of Xuanhe Era of Northern Song Emperor Huizong, would make seafarring trip less precarious. Yan Qinghuang also mentioned the imperial sanction of sea goddess, i.e., "Ma [mother] Zu [ancestress]", in AD 1156, 1158 & 1190, pinpointed a sign that sea commerce had prospered under Song emperors. In lieu of Tang system of using eunuchs, Song designated court officials to four coastal ports for dealing with foreign merchants. The "overseas trip permit" system, first adopted in AD 989, was enforced. Zhao Rushi's "Zhu [various] Fan [foreign countries] Zhi [records]" mentioned that murderer of Chinese merchant at Zhancheng [southern Vietnam?] was caught and that King of San-fo-qi wrote to China in Chinese language. Yan Qinghuang cited "Song Shi" [History of Song Dynasty] in pointing out that overseas Chinese had become leaders in alien lands, including Java [Mao Xu] and Japan [Zhu Rencong, Zhou Wende, Zhou Wenyi, Chen Wenyou, Sun Zhong & Li Chong]. Along the southeast coast of China would be settlement or ghettos of ethnic Arab, Muslim and Christian residents. Yan Qinghuang mentioned an AD 1225 book by port magistrate ("shi [trade] po [moor] si [magistrate]") Zhao Rushi of Quanzhou as a good example of management over foreigners. (Also see Mongol Yuan's extension of shi-po-si system to three additional cities.) Do note that foreigners had visited and dwelled in Guangzhou and Quanzhou much earlier than Song Dynasty. History recorded i) that Indian envoys arrived at the Han Court in AD 159/161 and Roman emissary in the Han Dynasty year of AD 166 and during the Wu Dynasty time period of the Three Kingdoms via a stop at Rinan (i.e., Champa); ii) that Lijian or Roman emissary, per "History of Jinn Dynasties" by Tang Dynasty's Fang Xuanling, came to Western Jinn court during the Taikang Era, AD 280-289, of Jinn Emperor Wudi (reign 265-290 AD); iii) that Indian and Arab merchant ships carried Fa Shien back to China during AD 399-414; iv) that Indian buddhists had come to Canton (Guangzhou) during the Liang Dynasty time period; v) that famous Tang Dynasty monk Xuan-zang had returned to China overland in lieu of sea trip as suggested by Indians for only one reason: Xuan-zang promised to Gaochang [Turpan] King Ju Wentai that he would pass through Turpan for a gathering on his return trip; and vi) that at the end of Tang Dynasty, rebell leader Huang Chao had sacked Canton and killed numerous foreigners. Song China possessed the most numerous and brilliant neo-Confucians. Those Confucians were so-called pillars and safeguards of the system, an elite class who obtained their officialdom via the civil services exam (open to almost all classes of people, though not altogether). This system of emperor's men had its heyday in Song Dynasty when first emperor of Song forced all his generals into retirement and conferred even the military posts onto civil-service officials. (Cai Dongfan commented that Song Dynasty's weakness lied in its disparagement of the military since Song never had to experience the power corruptions of empresses, eunuchs, in-law families, governors and royal families as seen in previous dynasties.) Song Dynasty produced such righteous ministers as Fan Zhongyan who was famous for a motto that "one should worry before the populace do so and seek happiness only after the populace become happy". Song time period also saw a 'political correctness' in applying Confucianism. The most notorious would be the stringent requirements for the women's faithfulness to the marriage and their husbands. 'Feet Binding', said to have been developed by last ruler of Southern Tang Dynasty, would become a norm during the Song Dynasty. Various Song ministers would devise their family mottos. This is best illustrated by the familial motto guides such as Zhu Family Mottos. (Zhu Xi was the neo-Confucian of Song Dynasty.) Song Dynasty also produced numerous 'Si [die for] Yi [righteousness]' intellectuals, i.e., those Confucians who sacrificed their families and lives for the country. When chased by the Mongol army, Prime Minister Lu Xiufu, with young emperor on his back, fled to southern tip of Mt Yashan. After driving his family into the sea, Lu jumped into the sea with emperor on his back. Wen Tianxiang, on the date of being executed, wrote a poem, stating that "Confucius proposed that one should die for compassion (Ren) and Mencius suggested that one should die for righteousness (Yi). Only when righteousness is fully exerted will the compassion be derived. What should I endeavour after educating myself with so many books of the ancient saints? However, I am sure that I feel no guilty about myself from this death moment on." (Confucius wording for 'Ren' should mean a broader sense of human perfection, similar to nirvana in Buddhism. 'Ren' also meant nucleus in Chinese, as used for the nucleus of various fruits like apple.) 
In AD 1110, i.e., 4th year of Song Emperor Weizong's Daguan Era, Whole China boasted of a population of 20.88 million households or 46.73 million people, but in AD 1264, i.e., 5th year of Song Emperor Lizong's Jingding Era, Southern China only had 13.03 million people. The conclusion is that China's brave men had fallen martyrdom in the resistance to invasion, something we should take pride in.
Similarly, China endured another round of population drop during Manchu invasion. In AD 1620, i.e., 1st year of Ming Emperor Guangzong's Taichang Era, China boasted of a population of 51.66 million people, but in AD 1651, i.e., 8th year of Qing Emperor Shizu's Shunzhi Era, China only had 10.63 million people.
Northern Song Dynasty
Around AD 907, the Khitans invaded northern Chinese post of Yunzhong. To combat Posterior Liang, Li Keyong would strike an agreement with the Khitans. However, the Khitans, under Yelu A'baoji (Yeh-lu A-pao-chi AD 872-926), would collude with Posterior Liang. Yelu A'baoji sought suzerainty with Zhu Wen for sake of title conferring as well as marriage with Zhu Wen's daughter. Posterior Jinn (AD 936-946), led by Shi Jingtang [a former general of Posterior Tang], would secede 16 zhou to the Khitans in order to fight Posterior Tang. Yelu A'baoji's son, Yelu Deguang, would assist Posterior Jinn in destroying Posterior Tang. However, rifts between Khitan Liao and Posterior Jinn ensued, and Khitans destroyed Posterior Jinn in AD 946. Khitans renamed their dynasty to Liao Dynasty in AD 947 in the attempt of ruling northern China. When weather got hot and Chinese under Liu Zhiyuan rebelled against them, Yelu Deguang retreated to the north and died en route home at a place called Fox-killing Ridge. A Posterior Jinn general of Shatuo tribe origin, Liu Zhiyuan, would be responsible for rallying an army and pressured Khitans into retreat, and hence Liu founded the Posterior Han Dynasty (AD 947-950). Guo Wei, a general of Posterior Han Dynasty responsible for defeating Posterior Jinn, rebelled after his family were slaughtered in the capital. Guo staged a change of dynasty by having his soldiers propose that he be the emperor of Posterior Zhou (AD 951-960). The uncle of Posterior Han emperor declared Northern Han (AD 951-979) in today's Shanxi and allied with Khitans. Guo Wei's Posterior Zhou will pass on to his foster son, Cai Rong, to be eventually usurped by his general called Zhao Kuangying who founded the Northern Song Dynasty (AD 960-1127). Song Emperor Taizu (Zhao Kuangyin, reign AD 960-976) Song Emperor Taizu, i.e., Zhao Kuangyin, had few legendary chivalry stories, including 'Escorting Miss Jingniang Home For Over Thousand Mile'. Emperor Taizu's grandfather was a Tang Dynasty 'ci shi' (circuit inspector) of Zhuozhou Prefecture, and further up the lineage would be numerous ancestors serving under Tang Dynasty. Emperor Taizu's father was Zhao Hongyin who had served Posterior Zhou as 'si tu', 'shang-jiangjun' (highest general), and 'tai wei' (grand captain) posthumously. Before Posterior Zhou, Zhao Hongyin at one time rescued Posterior Tang Emperor Zhuangzong, hence being conferred the post of 'dian jian', i.e., monitoring general in charge of imperial bodyguard column. During Posterior Han time period, Zhao Hongyin had defeated Sichuan army at Chencang; and during Posterior Zhou time period, in AD 953, Zhao Hongyin defeated Wu army from the Yangtz Delta and took over Yangzhou of Jiangsu and Shouchun of Anhui. Zhao Kuangyin was born in Luoyang in AD 927, i.e., the 2nd year of Posterior Tang's Tiancheng Era. Zhao Kuangyin was called a 'fragant baby' at birth, and his body carried golden glittering color. Zhao Kuangyin had two childhood friends, Han Lingkun and Murong Yanzhao. Zhao Kuangyin had high ambitions at young age and left home for the frontline by himself, without notifying his father. Zhao Kuangyin joined the army led by Guo Wei, qumi fu shi and zhaowei anfu shi of Posterior Han. (Guo Wei was ordered to fight Li Shouzhen rebellion at the time.) Guo Wei quelled the rebellions of Hezhong, Yongxing and Fenxiang, and brought Zhao Kuangyin to Yecheng. When Guo Wei usurped Posterior Han and set up Posterior Zhou, Zhao Kuangyin was assigned the post of deputy head for Huazhou prefecture and ma zhi jun shi of Kaifeng-fu governor office. When Posterior Zhou Emperor Shizong (Cai Rong) enthroned in AD 954, Zhao Kuangyin and his father (Zhao Hongyin) were both in charge of Posterior Zhou Emperor Shizong's imperial bodyguard column. (Cai Rong was the son of Guo Wei's brother-in-law, Cai Shouli.) When Northern Han (Liu Chong) and Khitan Liao attacked Posterior Zhou by taking advantage of the death of Guo Wei, Cai Rong led imperial bodyguard troops to Gaoping to counter Northern Han and Khitans. A general, zhi hui Fan Aineng fled the scene. Seeing that Cai Rong was targeted by enemy archers, Zhao Kuangyin led a dozen brave soldiers on a charge against the enemies and rescued Cai Rong. Posterior Zhou army chased Liu Chong to He-dong city, and Zhao Kuangyin personally led a fire attack at the city. Cai Rong retreated after Zhao suffered an arrow wound in the left arm. After Posterior Zhou retreated to Biandu (Kaifeng) the capital, Zhao Kuangyin was conferred Marquis Duyu-hou and ci shi [i.e., circuit inspector] of Yanzhou prefecture. During the third year reign of Zhou Shizong, i.e., AD 956, Posterior Zhou campaigned against the Huainan (south of Huai River) territories of Southern Tang Dynasty. Both Zhao Kuangyin and Zhao Hongyin joined the campaigns. Posterior Zhou defeated a Southern Tang army of over 10000 men at Wokou [Wo-shui river mounth], and killed "bingma (soldier & horse) du-jian (monitoring general)" Heh Yanxi. Southern Tang army, claiming 150000, led by "jiedu-shi" (satrap or governor) Huangfu Hui and Yao Feng, overflowed the Qingliu-guan Pass. When Zhao Kuangyin chased the Southern Tang army to the city, Huangfu Hui requested for stationing his troops outside of the citywall for a duel. Huangfu Hui was personally decapitated by Zhao, and Yao Feng was captured. After Zhao Kuangyin entered the city, he ordered that the city gates be closed at night. Zhao Kuangyin's father, Zhao Hongyin, was disuaded from entering the city at night as a show of descipline without regard for kinsmenship. When Han Lingkun took over Yangzhou, Southern Tang came to the relief. Han Lingkun proposed a retreat; however, Posterior Zhou Emperor Shizong ordered that Zhao Kuangyin lead 2000 relief soldiers to Liuhe to counter Southern Tang relief army. Zhao Kuangyin issued an order stating that should Han Lingkun's soldiers retreat to Liuhe, they would be cut off the feet. Han Lingkun hence solidified his defence at Yangzhou. Thereafter, Zhao Kuangyin defeated King Qi Jingda of Southern Tang to the east of Liuhe, and Zhao Kuangyin killed over 10000 enemies. Upon return to the capital, Zhao Kuangyin was conferred the post of "dianqian (front of imperial throne) du-zhi-hui-shi (directing general)" and "jiedu-shi" (satrap or commisioner general) for Dingguo-jun Garrison. During the fourth year reign of Posterior Zhou Emperor Shizong, i.e., AD 957, Zhao Kuangyin participated in the campaign against Shouchun of today's Anhui Prov. Posterior Zhou took over Zhu-zhai Garrison and Shouzhou city. Upon return, Zhao was conferred the post of "jianxiao (censoring and inspecting) taibao (gestapo)" and "jiedu (commisioner general)" for Yicheng-jun Garrison. In the winter, Posterior Zhou campaigned against Hao-Si prefecture areas of Anhui Province. Southern Tang stationed its army on the beach of Shibali-tan (eighteen Chinese mile beach). Zhou Emperor Shizong intended to cross the river via camels, but Zhao Kuangyin simply jumped into the river to lead the way as an example for his soldiers. Zhao defeated Southern Tang army on the opposite bank, and then flowed down the river to take over Sizhou city. Tang army then stationed at Dunqing-kou river mouth. Zhao followed Zhou Emperor Shizong in marching along the east of Huai River and chased the enemy to Shanyang. Zhao captured Southern Tang "jiedu-shi" (satrap or governor) Chen Chengzhao and took over Chuzhou city. Zhao went on to defeat Tang army at another river mouth, burnt the Tang camps south of the river, and defeated Tang army at Guabu. After quelling Huainan (south of Huai River) areas, Southern Tang tried to sow a dissension between Zhao Kuangyin and Zhou Emperor Shizong by sending 3000 Chinese ounces of 'baijing' (white gold) as a bribe. Zhao submitted the gold to the imperial coffer. The next year, Zhao was conferred the post of "jiedu-shi" (satrap or commisioning general) for Zhongwu-jun Garrison. In AD 959, Zhou Emperor Shizong led a northern campaign at Canzhou. Zhao Kuangyin was conferred the post of sui-lu du bushu ('land-water governing general in charge'). Zhou Shizong personally went to Qianning-jun Garrison to lead the attack at Ningzhou. Ningzhou ci shi (circuit inspector or governor) Wang Hong surrendered. Then, Han Tong was assigned the post in charge of land army while Zhao in charge of boats. Posterior Zhou army attacked Yijin-guan Pass. Wang Hong called upon the guarding general Zhong Tinghui for surrender. Zhong Tinghui agreed. Zhong Tinghui was retained as a general at the pass. When reaching Mozhou area, Zhao Kuangyin deserted boats for the bank, and attacked Waqiao-guan Pass. Zhao defeated guarding general Yao Neibing at Waqiao-guan Pass. When Posterior Zhou armies, led by du zhihui-shi Li Chongjing, by Han Tong (who pacified Mozhou and Yingzhou) and by emperor himself, converged under Waqiao-guan Pass, Yao Neibing surrendered. Yao was assigned the post of ci shi for Nuzhou. Posterior Zhou quelled the area south of the pass. Zhou Emperor Shizong then ordered a campaign against Khitans in Youzhou and Yizhou. Li Chongjing was ordered to attack northward. Li took over Gu'an city. North of the city was An'yang-shui River. Khitans dismantled the bridge and hid away the boats. Zhou Shizong, seeing that the river was wide, ordered the building of the bridge and then left for Waqiao-guan Pass. Zhou Shizong later fell ill. Meantime, Sun Xingyou was ordered to attack Yizhou and he took over the city and captured ci shi Li Zaiqin. Li Zaiqin refused to surrender and was ordered executed by Zhou Shizong. When Zhou Shizong's illness got worse, Zhao Kuangyin pursuaded him into a return to the capital. Waqiao-guan was renamed Xiongzhou and Chen Sirang was to guard it; Yijin-guan was renamed Bazhou, and Han Lingkun was to guard it. Zhou Shizong accidentally read about a 3-foot wood document stating that 'dianjian would be the new emperor'. Upon return to the capital, Zhou Shizong deprived "dian jian" Zhang De of his post and re-assigned it onto Zhao Kuangyin. Emperor Zhou Shizong also assigned Zhao Kuangyin the title of "jianxiao taifu". Zhou Shizong died shortly. When Posterior Zhou Emperor Gongdi was enthroned, Zhao Kuangyin was conferred the post of "jiedu" for Gui'de-jun Garrison and "jianxiao tai-wei" (grand captain). The next year, Northern Han and Khitans colluded in invading Zhou territories. Zhao lead an army to counter the attack. While stopping at Chenqiao-yi station, Zhao's follower, Miao Xun, pointed to the sky for another officer to see a second sun under the sun. At deep night, Zhao's generals had an assembly and proposed that Zhao Kuangyin be the new emperor. The generals put a yellow gown or robe onto Zhao Kuangyin. The next day, Zhao Kuangyin led his troops back to the capital and usurped Posterior Zhou Dynasty. Song Emperor Taizong (Zhao Jiong/Guangyi/Kuangyi, reign AD 976-997) Khitan Emperor Muzong (Yelü Jing r 951-969) was assasinated in AD 969. Wuyue's son, Yelü Xian, would be enthroned as Khitan Emperor Jingzong (r 969-982). Yelü Xian would appoint Xiao Shouxing as 'shangshu-ling' and take over Xiao's daughter as his empress. Song Dynasty's second emperor, Song Taizong (r 976-997), tried to attack Beijing after quelling the remnant Posterior Han. Khitans dealt Song Chinese a thorough defeat. After Khitan Emperor Jingzong (Yelu Xian, r 969-982) died, Yelü Rongxu was enthroned as Khitan Emperor Shengzong (r 982-1031). Empress Yanyan (or Yeye), after the death of Yelü Xian, would assume Khitan regency as so-called Xiao-niangniang or Xiaotaihou. Empress Xiaotaihou changed the dynastic name back to Khitan. i.e., Da Qi Dan or the Great Khitan. Xiaotaihou held the actual power. Xiaotaihou appointed a Chinese, Han Derang (son of Han Kuangsi or Han Guosi) as so-called 'shumi-shi' in charge of secretariat, Yelü Boguzhe in charge of areas west of Beijing, Yelü Xiuge in charge of areas south of Beijing, and accepted the surrender of a Song Chinese general (Li Ji-qian). Xiaotaihou later took in Han Derang as her lover and conferred onto him the post of prime minister and the title of King Jinn; Xiaotaihou gave Han Derang the Khitan name of Yelü Rongyun. When Xiaotaihou and Han Derang passed away, Yelü Rongxu ordered that Han Derang be buried next to the tomb of Xiaotaihou. Yelü Rongxu campaigned against Koryo for the killing of Koryo king by a minister. Song Emperor Zhenzong (Zhao Heng, reign AD 998-1022) During Song Dynasty, Toba Sigong descendant sought suzerainty with Song Chinese and changed their last name to Song royal family name of 'Zhao' from Tang family name of 'Li'. However, Xixia sought suzerainty with Khitans at the same time. When Song Emperor Zhenzong (Zhao Heng, reign AD 998-1022) was enthroned, Xixia ruler, Li Jiqian, sent congratulations. Song Emperor Zhenzong conferred the post of ding nan jie-du-shi (governor-general quelling rebellions) and the territories of Xia-Sui-Yin-You-Jing onto Li Jiqian. Zhenzong released a Xixia offical by the name of Zhang Pu. Li Jiqian sent his brother to Song court, and Song granted the name of Zhao Baoji to him. Emperor Zhenzong dispatched a minister (Zhang Qixian) to Jing-Yuan areas as jinglüe shi, and Zhang proposed that the city of Lingwu on the west Yellow River Bend be abandoned. Heh Liang, a Song official in charge of Yongxing Jun army would propose to defend Lingwu so that Xixia and Western Territories could be segregated. Heh Liang adamantly proposed that Song build two castles of Fule and Yaode for sake of supplying Lingwu with grains. Heh Liang stated that the supply of good horses would be cut off should Lingwu be lost to the Tanguts. Song Zhenzong then ordered that Wang Chao lead 60,000 relief army to Lingzhou (Lingwu). 
Li Jiqian attacked Song Qingyuan Jun Garrison [military district], and Duan Yi surrendered to the Tanguts. Li Jiqian then attacked Dingzhou and Huaiyuan; Song officla Cao Can assembled nomads and defeated Li Jiqian. In AD 1002, Li Jiqian attacked Lingzhou. Song zhi zhou shi Fei Ji defended the city for over one month, cut his finger and wrote a letter for relief with Song court, and later died in street fightings. Wang Chao made an excuse for not going to Lingzhou on time. Li Jiqian renamed Lingzhou to Xiping-fu and made it the capitalf of Xixia. One year later, Song zhi zhenrong jun Li Jihe wrote to Song court that a chieftan (Tibetan?) from Liugu (six valleys), by the name of Balaji (Panluozhi), intended to attack Tanguts on behalf of Song. Zhang Qixian proposed that Song conferred the title of King of Liugu and the post of zhao tao shi onto Balaji. Song decided to offer Balaji the title of suofang jie-du-shi onto Balaji. Balaji claimed that he had assembled 60,000 strong army. Li Jiqian then attacked Linzhou but he was defeated by Song zhi zhou Wei Jubao. Li Jiqian re-routed towards Xiliang (Gansu Prov) and killed a Song official called Ding Weiqing. Balaji, previously a vassal under jurisdiction of Xiliang, would pretend to surrender to the Tanguts. When Balaji led his Liugu Tibetan army to Xiliang for Li Jiqian to inspect on, Balaji would suddenly launch an attack at the Tanguts. Balaji shot an arrow at the eye of Li Jiqian. When Li Jiqian fled back to Lingzhou, he died of the wound. Li Jiqian's son, Li Deming, was enthroned next. Tanguts notified the Khitans of the succession, and Khitans conferred the title of King Xiping-wang onto Li Deming. Song Emperor Zhenzong sent a messenger to Li Deming for sake of pacifying him, and Li Deming dispatched general Wang Shen to Song for seeking suzerainty. Song "zhi zhenrong jun [garrison]" Cao Wei proposed that Song exterminated Xixia by taking advantage of Li Jiqian's death. Song Zhenzong stated that Song could not attack Tanguts while the Tanguts were in mourning period. Song conferred the post of "dingnan jun [garrison] jie-du-shi" onto Li Deming and then added King Xiping-wang by copying Khitan approach. Balaji was killed by some alien tribe, and Liugu tribes erected Balaji's brother, Sibangduo (Siduodu), as the new chief. Song court continued the conferral of suofang jie-du-shi onto Sibangduo. Sibangduo failed to rein in his people, and Sibangduo people defeacted to the Tibetans. Tibetan chieftan proposed to Song court that they launch an allied attack at Li Deming. Song Zhenzong declined it. Tibetans, however, invaded Song's Qinzhou territories, and Song official at Qinzhou, Cao Wei, defeated the Tibetans. Song conferred the title of ningyuan da jiangjun and tuan lian shi of Aizhou onto Tibetan chieftan. Song Emperor Renzong (Zhao Zhen, reign AD 1023-1063) Khitans sent emissary to congratulate Song Emperor Renzong's enthronement. The second year, Khitans propogated the news that they would go for hunting at Youzhou. A Song minister by the name of Zhang Zhibai advised against amassing troops for guarding possible Khitan invasion, and Khitans failed to find any excuse to invade Song. Khitans quelled the rebellion in Liaodong areas. In AD 1031, Khitan Emperor Shengzong (Yelü Rongxu) passed away, and son Yelü Zongzhen was enthroned as Emperor Xingzong (r 1031-1055). Yelü Rongxu gave two wills to Yelü Zongzhen, i.e., i) treat Khitan empress as his own mother; ii) befriend Song as long as Song keep peace. Yelü Zongzhen sent emissary to Song to notify of his father's death, and Song sent zhong cheng (central prime minister) Kong Daofu to express condolences. In AD 1032, Yelü Zongzhen's birth mother took advantage of Yelü Zongzhen's hunting and ordered that Yelü Rongxu's dowager empress to commit suicide. Yelü Zongzhen's birth mother later tried to instigate an ursurpation to have a junior son replace Yelü Zongzhen. The junior son (Yelü Chongyuan) notified his brother emperor. Yelü Zongzhen relocated his mother out of the capital and officially took over regency. Song Emperor Renzong preferred two concubines over empress. Empress Guohou accidentally injured Renzong with two finger scratches in the neck while arguing with Concubine Shang. Renzong, against the objections of several ministers, deposed the empress. Among the admonition ministers, Fan Zhongyan and Kong Daofu were exiled to prefectures as magistrates, and Sun Zude was deprived half a year worth of salary. The ministers argued that the emperor was like a father and the empress was like a mother and that ministers should pacify father and mother instead of encouraging a divorce. When Song Emperor Renzong's health deteriorated as a result of indulging in sex with two concubines, Dowager Empress Yang Taihou forcefully ordered that the two concubines be driven out of the palace. Yang Taihou selected the daughter of late qu mi shi Cao Bin as Empress Caohou. Because Renzong was weak physically and failed to bear offspring, Yang Taihou selected late Emperor Taizong's 4-year-old grandson as the adopted son, and this person would be the later Emperor Yingzong. When Renzong became reminiscent of deposed Empress Guohou, Yan Wenying, a minister who pushed for deposing of Guohou, would poison Guohou. At this time, Fan Zhongyan was recalled to Kaifeng-fu [i.e., capital] office. Fan Zhongyan impeached Yan Wenying; Yan was ordered to be exiled to Xiangzhou prefecture; and Yan died on route. Tangut ruler Li Deming, aka Zhao Deming, had a son by the name of Li Yuanhao. Li Yuanhao, good at both Tibetan and Chinese langauges, often proposed to Li Deming that the Tanguts defeat the Huihe (Uygur) and Tibetans first. Li Yuanhao led a surprise attack at Ganzhou and took over the city from Huihe. Li Deming made Li Yuanhao crown prince. Li Yuanhao often instigated his father in rebelling against Song. After the death of Li Deming, Li Yuanhao got enthroned. Song dispatched gongbu langzhong Yang Ji to the Tanguts and continued the previosu conferrals onto Li Yuanhao. Khitans conferred Li Yuanhao the title of King of Xia. In AD 1034, Li Yuanhao attacked Huanqing territories, i.e., Rouyuanzhai of Qingzhou. Song General Wei Tong attacked the hind of the Tanguts. Tanguts then invaded Song territories again. Li Yuanhao captured Qi Zongju who led relief soldiers from Huanqing and defeated Wang Wen who led relief soldiers from Ningzhou. Then, Li Yuanhao released Qi Zongju for sake of peace with Song. After that, Li Yuanhao dispatched an army of 25,000 against the Tibetans. Tanguts were defeated and Tangut general Sunuer was taken prisoner. Li Yuanhao personally led a retaliatory expedition against the Tibetans, attacked Maoniucheng city, Zongge and Daixingling; while attacking Linhuang and crossing the river half way, Tibetan cavalry charged out, and Li Yuanhao was completely defeated by the Tibetans. Song conferred Tibetan chieftan the title of "bao shun jun [garrison] liu-hou". Li Yuanhao then changed target and attacked the Huihe (Uygur) people. Li Yuanhao took over Huihe territories of Guazhou, Shazhou and Suzhou (Wuwei, Zhangye, Jiuquan and Dunhuang of Gansu). At this moment, two Chinese intellectuals from Huazhou area went to Lingzhou to see Li Yuanhao. Li Yuanhao (Zhao Yuanhao) adopted the advices of the two guys in building Xixia kingdom, renamed Lingzhou to Xingzhou (where 'xing' means prospering) and xiping-fu into xingqing-fu, declared a dynastic title of "Da Xia" (Grand Xia), established 16 departments and ministries, instituted 12 army supervisors (i.e., "jian jun si"), recruited an official army of 500,000, and devised Tangut characters. In AD 1038, Li Yuanhao sent messenger to Song to notify his imperial entitlement. In his letter, Li Yuanhao claimed Toba heritage from Toba Wei Dynasty. Because of Li Yuanhao's arrogant letter, Song Emperor Renzong, against the advice of admonition official Wu Yue, would decree that Li Yuanhao's previous conferrals be rescinded and that Song Chinese be forbidden from trading with the Tanguts. Song court further gave out a reward for the head of Li Yuanhao, i.e., rewarding as governor-general of ding nan jie-du-shi. Song court conferred the post of an-hu-shi onto Xia Song for the territories of Jing-Yuan-Qin-Feng, and the post of an-hu-shi onto Fan Yong for the territories of Fu-Yan-Huan-Qing. Li Yuanhao invaded Song and attacked Song's bao-an jun Garrison [military district]. At Anyuan-zhai, Li Yuanhao encountered a defeat in the hands of several Song Chinese armies led by Di Qing. Di Qing, originally from west of the Yellow River Bend, with the title of xunjian zhi-hue-shi, was recorded to have long dangling hair. During fights, Di Qing would wear bronze mask and impressed the enemy with a golden face. Li Yuanhao, with tens of thousands of army, retreated in face of Di Qing's ferociousness. Li Yuanhao then re-routed towards Yanzhou area. Khitans sent several messages to Song court in regards to their campaign againnst Tanguts. Khitans attacked Tanguts in the first year of Huangyou Era, i.e., AD 1049, and reported that they had succeded in subjugating the Tanguts in 1054, i.e., first year of Zhihe Era. Song-Xixia-Jin When Song Chinese took over some lands west of 'shan-xi' (i.e., land to the west of Huashan Mountain) that was seceded to the Tanguts, Tangut Emperor (Li Qianshun) wrote to the Jurchens asking for intervention. Jurchens, as an appreciation of the alliance with Song Chinese against Khitans, had earlier seceded nine prefectures of 'shan-xi' ex-Khitan territories to Song, including Shenxi Prov and 'he-nan' land (south of the Yellow River). Jurchens, who had an earlier agreement to allow Song to retake Peking, would help Song in the siege of Peking when Song army failed to take over Peking from remnant Khitans. Hence, Jurchens, in exchange for surrendering Peking to Song per alliance agreement, would receive the tax revenues of Peking as a compensation. (Later, Jurchens retook the territories of 'he-nan' / 'shan-xi' and Peking after defeating Song Chinese and capturing two Song emperors, Song Huizong & Song Qinzong.) Southern Song Dynasty
General Yue Fei General Yue Fei was a national hero during the times of Jurchen invasion. Born in Tangyin, Henan, General Yue Fei was a filial son according to Confucian standards. At the time of his birth, Yellow River breaching destroyed his hometown. Yue Fei's mother put him in a clay cauldron and survived the flooding. When he grew up, his mother taught him Confucian principles, such as 'being loyal to the overlord and showing requital by serving the country'. When Jurchens invaded China, Yue Fei's mother encouraged him to get recruited in the royal army. Yue Fei's mother inscribed four characters on Yue Fei's back, i.e., 'jing zhong bao guo' (exerting full loyalty in serving the country). In AD 1140, Yue Fei defeated Jurchens at Yancheng, Henan Prov, and reached Zhuxianzhen. Song Emperor (Zhao Gou), fearing that Yue Fei might defeat the Jurchens and retrieve Emperors Huizong and Qinzong, would issue 12 decrees to have Yue Fei recalled. After returning to Lin'an, Yue Fei was arrested together with his son (Yue Yun) and General Zhang Xian. Both royal family members and civilians petitioned with Song emperor for releasing Yue Fei, but Zhao Gou and Prime Minister Qin Hui instructed Moqi to collect various non-existing crimes for executing Yue Fei. Yue Fei died at the age of 39 in AD 1142. Yue Fei was restored fame only after Song Emperor Xiaozong enthroned. Yue Fei's body was secretly buried by a prison guard called Kui Shun. 
Khubilai Khan Conquest Of Southern China In August 1259, Mengke Khan died on Mount Diaoyushan of Hezhou Prefecture (Sichuan Province) after failing to take over a Song castle. Mongols hence called off the campaign. Before returning to Helin, Arik-Buka (Ariq-boeke), a junior brother of Khubilai, held an assembly in Helin and declared himself 'khan'. Khubilai stopped at Jinlianchuan (Kaiping, i.e., Duolun, Cha'haer, Inner Mongolia) and Khubilai declared himself Khan without an assembly. Yao Shu and Lian Xixian were ordered to make an announcement of Khubilai enthronement in the Chinese language. A Chinese era was declared, and the year would be First Year of Zhongtong Era, AD 1259. Liu Bingzhong and Xu Heng revised on Genghis Khan's governmental structure of 'Duanshi-guan' (criminal prosecutor), 'Wan-hu' (10,000 head military chief), and Jurchen-style titles of 'yuan-shuai' (marshal) and 'xuan-hu' (pacifier) for provinces. New structure will be i) 'zhongshu sheng' (state affairs), ii) 'shumi yuan' (military affairs), and iii) 'yushi tai' (promotion and demotion of officials). Lower levels will include shi, jian, yuan, si, wei, and fu. Provincial affairs would be handled by 'xing-sheng', 'xing-tai', 'xuan-hu', 'lian-fang' and 'muming zhangguan', and levels included 'Lu' (comprising of several provinces), 'Fu' (province or prefecture), 'Zhou' (smaller prefectures) and 'Xian' (county). But discrimination against Chinese was rampant. Mongols would assume the primary posts while the Han Chinese the deputy posts. Tax administration could only be laid in the hands of Muslims - allies of the Mongols. A caste society was established, and four levels were differentiated: 1) Mongols, 2) Se Mu Ren or Semuren (color-eyed people), 3) Han-Ren (i.e., northern Chinese, Khitans etc), and 4) Nan-zi (southern Chinese-barbarians). Arik-Buka (Ariq-boeke), a junior brother of Khubilai, held an assembly in Helin and declared himself 'khan'. Lian Xixian, on his own initiative, frustrated the attempts of Arik-Buka emissaries (Liu Taiping and Huo Luhuai) at Peking and defeated a general who answered Arik-Buka's order. Khubilai then attacked Arik-Buka and drove him off in AD 1261. At the advice of Liu Bingzhong, Khubilai Khan moved his capital to Peking in AD 1260, i.e., winter capital Dadu ("great capital") or Khanbalik in Marco Polo's Cambaluc. This is in addition to summer palace at Shangdu (the Xanadu of Coleridge). After being in reign for five years, Khubilai Khan declared the new era of Zhiyuan in AD 1263. (In AD 1271, the Mongols adopted the dynastic name Yuan.) Khubilai Khan sent an embassy, comprising of scholar officials Hao Jing, He Yuan and Liu Renjie, to Southern Song. Southern Song Prime Minister, in order to hide his previous treachery acts from Emperor Lizong (Zhao Yun, reign AD 1224-1264), would imprison the Mongol emissaries. Khubilai Khan sent another emissary to Song border general Li Tingzhi. Li's report to Emperor Lizong was covered up by Jia Sidao. Khubilai Khan issued the war decree in the second year of Zhongtong Era (Ad 1260). Mongol governor-general in charge of Huai River and Yangtze areas, Li Zhan (Li Tan?), defected to Song in the spring of third year of Zhongtong Era. Hearing of that, Khubilai Khan ordered that Shi Tianze to attack the defector general at Jinan, Shandong. After a few months siege, Mongols took over Jinan and killed Li Zhan via a cruel penalty of splitting the body. Siege Of Xiangyang Around AD 1264, during the fifth year of Zhongtong Era, Khubilai Khan changed to Zhiyuan Era. Arik-Buka was spared and came to surrender. At this time, a Song officer at Tongchuan, called Liu Zheng, being resented by Jia Sidao, would surrender his 15 prefectures to the Mongols and he was conferred the posts of 'xing(2)sheng(3)' and 'an-hu-shi' of Sichuan areas. Liu Zheng proposed to have Song Chinese grain supply cut off at Xiangyang. Song Chinese General in Sichuan, Lü Wende, did not pay attention to Liu Zheng's building up the castles and cutting off Xiangyang from Sichuan. Lü Wende said that Xiangyang had ten years of grain supply. General Lü Wenhuan at Xiangyang wrote to Lu Wende, but he was ignored. Then, Liu Zheng and A-zu led Mongols to Xiangyang and encircled it for four-five years. The new Song Emperor Duzong (Zhao Qi, reign AD 1264-1274) again conferred Jia Sidao important posts and added an extra title called 'Tai Shi', i.e., imperial tutor. Jia Sidao was extolled as comparable to Archduke Zhou of Western Zhou Dynasty. Jia Sidao pretended to resign several times, but Emperor Duzong would not let him go. Jia Sizong continued to shield the Xiangyang siege from the emperor. When a concubine told Duzong that Xiangyang had been under siege for 3 years, Jia Sidao would order that the woman be killed. The notoriety of Jia Sidao was best illustrated by another story: When one concubine of Jia Sidao saw a young man on the bank of Xihu Lake (West Lake) and exclaimed about the beauty of the young man, Jia Sidao would order that the young man be killed in front of the concubine. In Sichuan, after Lü Wende died, his brother-in-law, Fan Wenhu, took over the post, but Fan, like his predecessor, refused to send reief army to Xiangyang. At one time, Jia Sidao ordered Li Tingzhi and Fan Wenhu to aid Xiangyang. Fan Wenhu and his 100,000 were defeated. Two generals under Li Tingzhi, Zhang Shun and Zhang Gui, sailed along the Han-shui River, Zhang Gui broke through Mongol siege lines, and Zhang Gui died on the Han-shui River. Zhang Shun barely entered Xiangyang alive. After finding out Xiangyang was in great urgency, Zhang Shun, hiring two brave men, departed Xiangyang for sake of appealing for aid with Fan Wenhu. But soon after Zhang Shun broke through Mongol siege lines, he encountered Mongol ships and was caught by Mongol, and Zhang died in Mongol hands. Then, the sister city of Fancheng was taken over by the Mongols, and two generals, Fan Tianshun and Niu Fu, died. Mongols deployed catapults (made by Persian engineers) against the outer wall of Xiangyang and destroyed it. Everytime Lü Wenhuan climbed up the citywall, he would have tears while facing the south. A Mongol general called on Lü Wenhuan to surrender, saying that Lü Wenhuan had done his job by guarding Xiangyang for five years. After they broke the arrows to swear forgivenness and sincerity, Lü Wenhuan surrendered and was conferred the post of 'Da-dudu' or governor-general of Xiangyang and Han-shui River areas. Demise Of Song Dynasty At this time, Emperor Duzong died, and his four year old son, Emperor Gongdi (Zhao Xian, reign 1274-1275), was made emperor in AD 1275. Mongols sent Shi Tianze and Boyan (Bayan, grandson of Subetei) on a full campaign against Song. Shi Tianze died on route. Bayan ordered that A-zu head the first column and depart for the Yangtze from Xiangyang, with Lu Wenhuan as fore-runner general; 2nd column was to be headed by Mang-wu departing from Yangzhou, with Liu Zheng as forerunner general. Bayan took over numerous cities on the way, slaughtered one town, and killed and captured numerous Song generals. Song Dowager Empress Xie-shi had no choice but to rely on Jia Sidao for fighting the Mongols. More Song generals surrendered, including Fan Wenhu in Sichuan, Chen Yi in Huangzhou (Huanggang area, Hubei). Hearing Liu Zheng had passed away, Jia Sidao had a short ecstasy and led an army of about 130,000 against the Mongols, but he was defeated on the Yangtze River. Jiangsu areas, around the Yangtze, including Zhenjiang and Jiangying, were deserted in face of Mongol attacks. Jia Sidao sent an emissary to Bayan for peace, but met with declination. Jia Sidao requested with dowager empress for relocation of Song capital, but Empress Xie-shi refused to move. Several ministers at Song court requested that Jia Sidao be deprived of his posts, and Song released former Mongol emissaries like Hao Jing as a good-will gesture. At this moment, Zhang Shijie of Er'zhou (Hubei Province), Wen Tianxiang of Jiangxi and Li Fei of Hunan came to the east to help the Song court. Jiankang (i.e., Nanking) was deserted by a Song general. Changzhou and Wuxi were next taken by the Mongols. Khubilai Khan then sent Lian Xixian and Yan Zhongfan to Song for talking about a ceasefire. Lian Xixian requested with Bayan for bodyguards, but Bayan advised that the more bodyguards Lian was to take with him, the more likely Song Chinese might harm him. Lian obtained 500 soldiers, but once Lian arrived at Dusong-guan Pass, Song General Zhang Ru killed Yan Zhongfan and captured Lian Xixian. (History of Yuan Dynasty stated that Lian was killed, too.) Bayan reprimanded Song's acts, and sent another emissary, Zhang Xu, to Song court together with Song emissary. Again, Zhang Xu was killed by a Song border general. Then, the Mongols stopped peace talks and attacked Yangzhou on the north bank of the Yangtze (Changjiang River). Mongols then attacked Yangzhou and defeated two generals under Li Tingzhi. Jiading city surrendered next. Zhang Shijie's navy was defeated on the Yangtze by Mongol fire attack. Wen Tianxiang arrived in Lin'an (Hangzhou) the capital, but Empress Dowager did not take his advice. Jia Sidao was expelled from the capital and he was killed by the escort official on route. Taizhou of Jiangsu was lost to the Mongols, and Changzhou city was slaughtered. In Hunan, Li Fei died, and both Hunan and Jiangxi Provinces were lost. After taking over Dusong-guan Pass, the Mongols were closing in onto Song capital. A Song minister called Liu Yue was sent to Mongol camp for peace, but Bayan declined it, saying Song Emperor obtained the throne from a kid and would lose it in the hands of a kid. Lu Xufu was sent to Mongols for expressing a wish to be Mongol nephew, but Mongols declined it. Song's new prime minister, Chen Yizhong, sent Liu Yue to Mongols in the attempt of expressing ackowledgement as a Mongol vassal, but Liu Yue was killed by a Song Chinese civilian on route, at Gaoyou of Jiangsu Province. Mongols then sacked Jiaxing and An'jie of Zhejiang Province. Wen Tianxiang and Zhang Shijie advised that Song court relocated to the islands in the seas, but Prime Minister Chen Yizhong decided to send imperial seal to Mongols for a surrender. Bayan requested that Chen personally came to Mongols, and Chen fled to Wenzhou, a southern Zhejiang coastal city. Zhang Shijie led his people into the sea. Wen Tianxiang was made the rightside prime minister and was ordered to go to Mongols for peace. Wen was arrested by Bayan after he accused Bayan of invasion. On Feb 21st of AD 1276, Bayan took over Lin'an and forced downager empress issue the surrender order. Song royal family, including downager empress and Emperor Gongdi (Zhao Deyou), was sent to Peking. Late Emperor Duzong had two more sons, 11 and 6 year old, respectively. They fled to Wenzhou before Lin'an was taken by Mongols. Chen Yizhong sailed them to Fuzhou of Fujian Province where a new Song court was set up. On June 14th, eleven year old Zhao Shi (King Yi-wang) was made Emperor Ruizong (reign AD 1275-1278). Zhang Shijie, Su Liuyi, and Lu Xiufu consecutively arrived in Fuzhou. Chen Yizhong was retained as leftside prime minister, while Wen Tianxiang, after fleeing from the Mongols, also arrived in Fuzhou and acted as rightside prime minister. Song court would last another three years before the final demise. Mongols continued to push south. Canton (Guangzhou) of Guangdong Province was taken, and Song General Huang Jun died. Yangzhou on the Yangtze Bank were taken, and General Li Tingzhi was captured and killed. Mongols then invaded Fujian Province. Song Court was frequently on the run, from one island to another, along the coast, and on May 8th of AD 1278, the new Song Emperor died of illness within two years of enthronement. The now eight-year-old brother, Zhao Bing (King Wei-wang), was made the new emperor Di-bing on June 28th of AD 1278. Note Di-bing had no posthumous imperial title at all. Chen Yizhong died in Hainan; Lu Xiufu was made leftside prime minister. When the Mongols attacked again, Song Court fled to Yashan, somewhere near Macao. Mongol General Zhang Hongfan led a surprise attack at Chaoyang (Chaoshan areas, Guangdong Province) and captured Wen Tianxiang who later wrote the famous poem entitled 'Ling Ding Yang' or 'Lingding Sea'. At Hainan, Zhang Shijie nailed together his fleet, trying to defend the straits. Zhang Shijie declined Zhang Hongfan's invitation for surrender. After a defeat, Zhang Shijie broke through the siege with 16 ships. When chased by the Mongols, Lu Xiufu, with young emperor on his back, jumped into the sea with emperor on his back after driving his family into the sea. On Feb 26th of AD 1279, after driving his family into the sea, Lu jumped into the sea with emperor on his back. Zhang Shijie met with a hurricane near Hailingshan Mountain, preyed that his ship sink should Heaven intend to capsize Song Dynasty, and died when his ship was sunken. Song Dynasty officially ended in AD 1279, after a total of 320 years, including 152 (153?) years in southern China. Song royal tombs would be dug up by a Central Asian monk for treasures. Khubilai Khan declared the dynasty of Yuan ("first" or "beginning") in this year. Beginning of Yuan Dynasty Khubilai Khan obtained his throne without a proper assembly, and hence he had lost the kind of mandate over ruling other Mongol khanates. By moving the capital to Peking from Karakorum (rebuilt by Ogedei in AD 1235), he had changed the old Mongol yasaq. In the very beginning, Jochi's son, Batu, ruled the region to the north and west of Lake Balkash (extending from Hungary to Kirghiz Plains, and from lower Danube to Caucasus); Chagadai was given the southwestern region to the east of River Amu-darya and to the southeast of River Syr-Darya, including Afghanistan, Turkestan, the former Naiman territories around the Altai, and central Siberia; Ogedei was awarded China and East Asia; Tului, the youngest of the four sons, was to have central Mongolia. Later, Tului sons exterminated the ruling of Ogedei descendants and diminished the domain of Ogedei descendants, and Chagadai domain was curtailed; Hulegu was given the territories beyond the Oxus River and the Hindu Kush. Nominally, Khubilai Khan was in charge of all khanates: 'Amu-darya Xingsheng' was in charge of Ilkhante and Kipchak Khanate; 'Lingbei (north ridge) Xingsheng' was in charge of Ogedei Khanate; and two 'yuan shuai (marshal)' offices were in charge of Chagadai Khanate. A separate 'Liaoyang Xingsheng' was in charge of Manchuria. After declaring his dynasty of Yuan (AD 1261-1368), Khubilai Khan could only be considered a ruler of China and Mongolia. Before subjugating Southern Song, Kubilai sent a fleet of 150 boats against Japan in AD 1274. Marco Polo supposedly had travelled to and stayed in China during the period of AD 1275 - 1292. Two years after the 1279 conquest of Southern Song, Kubilai's empress, an Onggirat woman, passed away. Mongol khans had a custom of marrying Onggirat women, a convention passed down from Genghis Khan. A niece of the empress would become the new empress. But Khubilai, though getting older, chose to go to the capital of Shang-du (i.e., Kaiping) for sake of indulging himself in concubines there (i.e., concubines from past emperors). Kubilai hired a Muslim as his finance minister, and this person, A-he-ma, had done his best to exploit the people in iron and salt trades. A-he-ma nepotism would include over 500 officials across the country. A-he-ma would later be killed by a 'qian hu' who issued an order in the name of crown prince. Khubilai then renovated politics a bit by ordering Guo Shoujing to recompile calendar, promoting overseas trading, and inviting Confucian descendant as academy official. Rebellions broke out in coastal China of Fujian and Guangdong. Owing to rumors about Song revival, Khubilai relocated late Song Emperor Gongdi (now Duke Yingguo-gong) to Shang-du and ordered ex-Song prime minister Wen Tianxiang be executed should he refuse to surrender. Wen Tianxiang was executed at the age of 47 in AD 1283. Wen was previously No. 1 scorer, i.e., zhuang yuan, during Song Emperor Lizong's imperial exam. Wen Tianxiang wrote a poem, stating that "Confucius proposed that one should die for compassion (Ren) and Mencius suggested that one should die for righteousness (Yi). Only when righteousness is fully exhausted will the compassion be derived. What should I endeavour after educating myself with so many books of the ancient saints? However, I am sure that I feel no guilty about myself from this death moment on." (Confucius wording for 'Ren' should mean a broader sense of human perfection, similar to nirvana in Buddhism. 'Ren' also meant nucleus in Chinese, as used for the nucleus of various fruits like apple.) Khubilai, impressed by this poem, would confer a title of Duke Lulingjun-gong on Wen Tianxiang posthumously. TO BE CONTINUED ! Written by Ah Xiang |
|
Li Hongzhang's Poem After 1895 Treaty of Shimonoseki:
Copyright 1998-2006: This website expresses the personal opinions of the author. In addition to author's comments, extensive citations and quotes of ancient Chinese classics (available at http://www.sinica.edu.tw/ftms-bin/ftmsw3) were presented via transcribing and paraphrasing Classical Chinese language into the English language. Whenever possible, links and URLs are provided to give credit and reference to ideas borrowed elsewhere. This website may be used or reproduced in any form or by any means, with or without prior written permission, on the pre-condition that acknowledgement or reciprocal link is expressively provided. All rights reserved. WARNING: Some of the pictures, charts and graphs posted on this website came from copyrighted materials. Any citation or usage in print format or for financial gain could be subject to fine, penalties or sanctions without the original owner's consent.
ECON 101: US Interest Rate Down = China Exchange Rate Up !
Send email to webmaster@ImperialChina.org; webmaster@UglyChinese.org; webmaster@RepublicanChina.org; webmaster@RepublicanChina.com or use Form_Email |
||
|
Preferred Websites: China The Beautiful 
Huanghuagang Magazine 
Secret China 
|
![Though, Anna Wang [Anneliese Martens], in her memoirs, expressed jealousy over Gong Peng by stating that the Anglo-American reporters had flattered the Chinese communists and the communist movement as a result of being entranced with the goldfish-eye'ed personal assistant of Zhou Enlai](GongPeng.jpg)
