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In the Chinese history, the people in today's Manchuria were classified into the "Anterior Jurchens" and the "Posterior Jurchens". The "Anterior Jurchens" would be those Jurchens who defeated the Khitans' Liao Dynasty (AD 907-1125), and set up the Jin or Gold Dynasty (AD 1115-1234) that lasted 119-120 years in northern China. The "Posterior Jurchens" were the name first adopted by the Manchus when they rebelled against the Chinese Ming Dynasty. They renamed themselves the Manchu {Man-zhou, with the three dot zhou meaning a continent or an island in the river, which was an absurb usage of a Chinese character) in the early 17th cent. In the Turk & Uygur section, we mentioned that Jian Bozan, a writer who committed suicide during the Cultural Revolution, happened to be an ethnic Uygur from Hunan Province. Another writer, Lao She, who also committed suicide during the Cultural Revolution, was an ethnic Manchu. The Chinese records categorically said that "the ancestry of the Manchus can be traced back more than 2,000 years to the Sushen tribe, and later to the Yilou, Huji, Mohe [Malgal] and Ruzhen (Nuzhen) tribes native to the Changbaishan Mountains and the drainage area of the Heilongjiang River in northeast China." Here, the name Sushen would be used during Zhou Dynasty time period, Yilou during early Han Dynasty time period, Huji during Toba's Northern Wei Dynasty, Mohe (Malgal) during Sui Dynasty, Bohai (Palhae) during Tang Dynasty, and Ruzhen (Nuzhen) during Song Dynasty. This was of course after hundreds of years of mixing-up or confrontation between the original inhabitants of Su-shen (Yliou) and the invaders such as the Mo (He) & Hui, Fuyu and Xianbei people. (The Chinese way to tell the continuity of people in one area was unscientific: Sushen-shi was recorded to have sent in bows and arrows using stone arrowhead and promenade arrow-shaft during the 25th reign of Lord Shun [reign 2257-2208 BC ?]. When Marquis Chen-guo asked about a fallen eagle with a stone arrowhead, Confucius reminded the marquis of an early record on the history book stating that Sushen-shi had sent in arrow tributes to Zhou King Wuwang who subsequently subscribed the Sushen-shi characters and allocated to various vassals as a gift. Marquis Chen-guo did locate the ancient arrow in the storage and found it to be true. Sushen-shi, living in Manchuria bordering the Japan Sea, had sent in tributes after Zhou King Wuwang built roads leading to four barbarian directions.) Origin Of the Jurchens The Jurchens were said to be a group of people who lived in Manchuria for many centuries and the tribal name was known since the 7th cent according to one account. The book The History Of Jurchen Jin Dynasty, written by Yuan's Prime Minnister Toktoghan (Tuo Tuo), recorded that the ancestors of the Jurchens were from the tribe called Huji or the Mohe (Malgal) which were located in the land of the ancient state of Sushen bordering the Japan Sea. Sushen-shi, Gu-zhu, Ji-zi Chaoxian, "Mo", "Hui", Dong-hu & the [Misnomer] Dong-yi (Eastern Yi) Barbarians We mentioned the Sushen State in the Korean section. The Sushen Statelet first submitted their renowned arrows and bows to Lord Shun during the 25th reign of Lord Shun (reign 2257-2208 BC ?), and Sushen continued to pay pilgrimage to Zhou Dynasty later. Sushen renewed the tribute in Cao Wei dynasty of the Three Kingdom time period. Also on record would be a statelet called Guzhu (i.e., lonely bamboo) in southern Manchuria, i.e., a Shang Dynasty vassal. It was said that Zhou Dynasty founder, Ji Chang, managed his statelet so well that old people went there for retirement, and two princes of the Guzhu Statelet (i.e., the Mo-tai-shi clan) in southern Manchuria, Bo-yi and Shu-qi, came to live in Zhou land. After the demise of Shang Dynasty, Ji-zi, a Shang Dynasty prince, departed for the land of the east [possibly a destination on the Shandong peninsula and then a cross-sea trip to either southern Manchuria or northern Korea] that came to be known as "Chao-xian [Korea]" in the ancient classics of Shan Hai Jing (The Legends of Mountains and Seas). Note that no matter how the Shang Dynasty exodus took place to reach Korea, Shang Prince Ji-zi of the 11th century B.C.E., the 'Ming-yi' and the Chaoxian (Korea) designation of the 4th century B.C.E., apparently all belonged to the Sinitic family, as all available ancient Korean words as recorded in the book Fang Yan (i.e., Dialects) by Western Han Dynasty minister Yang Xiong, all appeared to be one syllable characters, none like multiple syllables as today's Tungusic or Korean languages are. Interspersed among the major groups of people of Sushen (Yilou), Dong-hu and Ji-zi Chaoxian (Korea) were numerous "Mo" ("He") people and "Hui[4]" people. Those groups of people were later treated the same as Fuyu. According to Chen Shou, Fuyu (Puyo or Puyeo) had 80,000 households. Fuyu shared the same customs as the Huns on the matter of taking over the concubines of late father or late brothers. Fuyu, part of the ancient "Mo" and "He" people who could have lived in today's northern Shanxi Province and Inner Mongolia, had moved into Manchuria under the pressure of the ancient "Xianyun" [i.e., predecessors of the Huns] according to classics Shi Jing. Fuyu was speculated to be the ancient Bai-min [white clothing people] or the ancient Fa-ren [hair people]; however, in light of the eastern migration, Fuyu might not be of the same people as the original natives of Manchuria, such as the Su-shen-shei people bordering the Japan Sea. --The possible explanation was that the so-called Mo-hui people were a combination of the Mo (He) people from today's Inner Mongolia and the Hui[4] people who were speculated to have been pressured into a move into central Manchuria [from the Shandong peninsula and North China] when the Zhou people overthrew Shang Dynasty, a claim that would equate the "Hui" people as belonging to the same category as Shang Prince Ji-zi's exodus. By the time of the Spring and Autumn time period of Zhou Dynasty, the northern or northeastern barbarians closer to the Chinese would be called Shan-rong or Mountain Rongs (aka Beirong or Wuzhong), about the area of today's Jehol mountains and the Western Hill areas to the west of Peking. The Mountain Rongs, at one time, went across the Yan Principality of Hebei Province to attack Qi Principality in today's Shandong Province; 44 years after that, they attacked Yan again; the Yan-Qi joint armies, under the command of Qi Counsellor Guan Zhong, Marquis Qi Huanggong, and Byron Yan, drove them out and moreover penetrated into the Rong land. Around 664 BC, the Yan-Qi joint armies destroyed the Mountain Rong Statelet as well as the Guzhu Statelet. During the Warring States time period, the barbarians in the same area came to be known as Dong-Hu or the Eastern Hu people. A Yan Principality General, by the name of Qin-kai, after returning from Donghu as a hostage, attacked Donghu and drive them away for 1000 li distance, and further attacked Ji-zi Chaoxian (Korea), extending the control to the Jeanyeong or Zaining-jiang River of Korea. Yan built the Great Wall and set up Shanggu, Yuyang, You-beiping, Liaoxi and Liaodong prefectures. The Sushen tribe was then known as Yilou. (The Chinese history recorded succeeding names like Huji, Mohe, Bohai and Nuzhen tribes in the same area.) Hence, in southern Manchuria and northern Korea, major groups of people identified included the Sushen people at the Japan Sea, the Fu-yu people interspersed in-between, the Ji-zi Choxian Koreans to the south, and the Dong-hu to the west. Chen Shou said the people of Yilou looked similar to Koguryo and Fuyu, but the language differed from each other. Since Fuyu (Puyo or Puyeo) and Koguryo peoples shared the same language, the speculation would be that the Mo people were Tunguzic, too. Chen Shou recorded that the Fuyu (Puyo or Puyeo) and Koguryo peoples shared the same language, but different styles of clothing and temperament. Eastern Woju, which was near today's Tumen River estuary, was said to have the similar language as Koguryo. In the 2nd century, Yilou had to submit tributes to Koguryo in addition to Fuyu. In early 3rd century, Yilou resisted the rule of Fuyu. Yilou, which submitted tribute to Wei China in A.D. 236 and 262, was attacked by Koguryo in A.D. 280 as punishment for robbing the Koguryo border people, enjoyed a time period of relative independence after Koguryo suffered defeat in the hands of Paekche, but was attacked again by the revived Koguryo in A.D. 398. Riding on ships, the Yilou people often pirate-attacked Bei-woju (northern Woju) which was located in the land between Vladivostok and the Tumen Rivermouth. More about Sushen-shi, Gu-zhu, Ji-zi Chaoxian, "Mo", "Hui", Dong-hu is available at imperialchina.org/Koreans.html Donghu: Wuhuan & Xianbei The Jurchens were said to be related to the Tungus. The Xianbei-Wuhuan, who were said to be of the Tungus stock, were driven to Xianbei and Wuhuan Mountains after they accused the first Hunnic king Modu (Modok) of patricide. They were later relocated to Liaoning Province by Han Emperor Wudi for sake of segregation from the Huns. Hence, they were called the Donghu or Eastern Hu nomads, inheriting an old tribal name that long existed in the Zhou times. The important thing to be noted about the earlier Huns or the Donghu (i.e., the Xianbei-Wuhuan) will be that they were living alongside the Chinese for hundreds of years and should be deemed semi-sinicized and semi-civilized peoples. But the later Khitans or the Jurchens or the Mongols fared much worse, and those people ate raw meat and did not know how to count their ages. After the Hunnic decline in late first century AD, the Xianbei west. The Xianbei mixed up with the Huns. The Hunnic Xia Dynasty, established by Helian Bobo, was said to be of a mingle nature, called 'Tie Fu'. The Tie Fu Huns were born of Xianbei mother and Hunnic Father. There appeared a Xianbei chieftan called Tanshikui (reign A.D. 156-181) who established a Xianbei alliance by absorbing dozens of thousands of Huns. The Tanshikui alliance disintegrated after the death of Tanshikui. Another chieftan called Kebi'neng emerged. Warlord Yuan Shao campaigned against the Wuhuans and controlled three prefectures of Wuhuan nomads. In 207, Cao Cao, who controlled the last Han Dynasty emperor, launched a punitive campaign against the Wuhuan. Exiting the Lulongsai Pass and trekking deep into the mountains, Cao Cao's army penetrated to Liucheng (today's Chaoyang), i.e., Wuhuan's home base in today's southern Manchuria, and at the Battle of Bailangshan (white wolf mountain), defeated Wuhuan chieftan Tadun. Over 10,000 Wuhuan households under Yan Rou relocated to China under the order of Cao Cao. The Wuhuan people, with three prefectures eqivalent of cavalry force, served Cao Cao as the mercenary cavalry. Ts'ao Wei Dynasty broke a new Xianbei alliance by sending an assasin to kill Kebi'neng. Following the destruction of Wuhuan, Sima Yi, in the name of Cao Wei Dynasty, penetrated further into Manchuria. Sima Yi's exterminating the Gongsun Family who ruled southern Manchuria and northern and central Koreas for almost half a century and in A.D. 238 deporting 40,000 households of Sinitic Chinese or over 300,000 people back to North China from Manchuria, yielding the area to the Tungunsic, i.e., the Xianbei and Fuyu (including Koguryo & Paekche). Among the Xianbei who were to take the place of the Wuhuan to dominate the area would be the clans of Duan, Murong and Yuwen. The Xianbei, with major tribes of Murong, Yuwen, Duan, would establish many short-lived successive states in North China and along the Chinese frontier. Among these states was that of the Tuoba or Toba (T'o-pa in Wade-Giles), a subgroup of the Xianbei, in modern China's Shanxi Province. Huji & Mohe During Toba Wei Dynasty, the Mohe (Malgal) was renamed to the old name of Huji. At the times of Toba Wei Dynasty, Huji possessed altogether seven tribes. The Huji then were called by the Malgals during Sui Dynasty, who were very much a mixed-up people by that time. By Tang Dynasty, two tribes, Heisui (black water) and Sumuo, were known. Sumuo, one of the Huji tribes, sought protection with Koguryo, and after Koguryo's demise in the hands of Tang, became independent and established the State of Po'hai (Palhae) around Dongmoushan Mountains. Po'hai continued for a dozen generations till it was destroyed by the Khitans. Note Bohai (Po'hai) was recorded to have possessed a written language, music and rituals, government and system, and it possessed five big cities, fifteen prefectures and sixty-two zhou (lesser prefectures). During the second year of Tang Emperor Taizong, A.D. 628, the Huji land was made into Yanzhou Prefecture. The Huji tribes joined Koguryo in resisting Tang Dynasty. During the tenth year of Kaiyuan Era, A.D. 722, Tang Emperor Xuanzhong set up Heisui-fu or Blackwater Governor office in the Huji land. The Heishui [Blackwater] Mohe (Malgal) dwelled in the old land of Sushen. The Blackwater Tribe, who dwelled in the ancient Sushen land, also sought protection with Koguryo, and at one time, sent 150,000 troops to fight Tang on behalf of Koguryo. They were defeated by Tang in a place called An'shi. In the Kaiyuan Era of Tang Dynasty, the Blackwater Tribe came to pay pilgrimage to Tang and its land was made into Heisui-fu (i.e., Blackwater Governor Office) and its tribal chieftan was conferred the title of 'dudu' or governor-general. The Blackwater Tribe was given the Tang family name of 'Li'. After Po'hai became a strong power, this tribe became subordinate to the Sumuo Tribe. The Shiwei people, i.e., the future Mongols under Genghis Khan, shared the same language as the Huji people. They dwelled in the upper Heilongjiang River. The location of the Shi-wei was to the east of the Turks, the west of the Huji, and the north of the Khitans. They were connected with Koguryo in the south, around today's Changbaishan Mountains as well as with the Shiwei in the north. Part of the Fuyu people had dwelled next to the Shi-wei people along the Amur River. In early times, Fuyu split into two parts, i.e., North Fuyu and East Fuyu, with the founder of East Fuyu moving to the northeastern coast of the Korean peninsula. Later, in A.D. 723, Da-mo-lou, i.e., descendants of North Fuyu which was destroyed by Korguryo, came to Tang Dynasty together with the Shi-wei tribe of Dagou (Dadu). History stated that Da-mo-lou dwelled near the Du-na River which flew into the Amur River towards the northeastern direction. Successors Of Xianbei-Wuhuan-Tuoba After the Xianbei-Wuhuan-Tuoba disappeared into China's melting pot during the 16 Nations (AD 304-420), the newcomers from the northern hemisphere, together with the remaining Tunguzic people, would be occupying the eastern part of Mongolia and today's Machuria. In A.D. 443, the barbarians who took over Tuoba's old territories, upper Heilongjiang River and northern Xing'an Ridge, came to see Tuoba Wei Emperor (Tuoba Tao) and told him that they found Tuoba ancestor's stone house, called 'Ga Xian Dong'. Tuoba Tao sent a minister called Li Chang to the stone house which was carved out of a natural cavern. In 1980s, this cavern was discovered as well as the inscriptions left by Li Chang. The peoples who dwelled in old Xianbei-Wuhuan-Tuoba territories would be the later Shiwei Tribes (ancestors of Mengwu Shiwei or Genghis Mongols), the Khitans, the Xi nomads, and the Mohe people etc. Among them would be ancestors of the later Jurchens or the Mongols. The Khitans first appeared on the stage. The New History Of Tang Dynasty mentioned that the Khitans were descendants of the Kebi'neng Xianbei. (Alternatively, The Old History Of Five Dynasties said that the Khitans were an alternative race of the Huns.) The New History Of Tang Dynasty said that by the time of Toba's Northern Wei Dynasty (AD 386-534), the ancestors of the Khitans adopted the name 'Khitan' for themselves. The Khitans lived around the Liao River in today's Manchuria. To the east of the Khitans will be Koguryo, to the west the Xi Nomads, to the north Mohe (Malgal) and Shiwei Tribes, and to the south Yingzhou Prefecture of Toba Wei Dynasty. The Shiwei statelets would be where we are to trace the Mongols for their origin. The Mohe (Malgal) would be where the Jurchens came from. The New History Of Tang Dynasty said Khitans possessed eight tribes and they were subject to the Turks. The Eastern Turks assigned Khan Tuli in charge of the Khitan and the Huji tribes. The Khitan chieftan was conferred the title of 'Sijin' by the Turks. Around A.D. 620s, the Khitan chieftan came to see Tang's first Emperor, Tang Gaozu, together with a Huji chieftan. Khitans rebelled against the Turks and fled to Tang for asylum. In A.D. 628, Turks pleaded with Tang Emperor Taizong to have Khitans relocate back to Turk control, but Tang Taizong declined this request. The Xi people, according to New History Of Tang Dynasty, were derived from the Tadu's Wuhuan (one branch of Eastern Hu nomads) who were defeated by Ts'ao Ts'ao during the Three Kingdoms time period. Alternatively, they were said to be a different race of the Huns. By the time of Toba Wei, Xi renamed themselves to Kuzhen-xi and they borderd with the Turks in the west and the Khitans in the northeast. By the time of Sui Dynasty, they changed their name back to Xi. A chieftan called Suzhi followed Tang Emperor Taizong in the Korean campaigns and was conferred the post of Governor-General of Raole, in charge of six prefectures. At one time, the Xi people followed the Khitans in rebelling against Tang, and Xi sent some captured Tang general to the Muchuo's Orchon Turks for execution. During the second year of Jaiyuan Era of Xuanzong, Tang Emperor Xuanzong once sent a Tang Princess Gu'an to the Xi chieftan and conferred the title of King of Raole. The Xi chieftan came to the Tang capital the second year for the marriage. More Tang princesses would be married to the Xi chieftans. By the 4th year of Zhenyuan Era, the Xi joined the Shiwei in attacking Zhengwu Governor office. Xi also joined Huihe and Shiwei in attacking Chinese Turkistan. In the first year of Dazhong Era, Tang General Zhang Zhongwu defeated the Xi and burnt 200,000 tents. When the Khitans strengthened, the Xi submitted to the Khitans. Badly treated by the Khitans, the Xi fled to Tang and was assigned to Guizhou Prefecture, and they split into Eastern Xi and Western Xi. The Shiwei people were said to be an alternative race of the Khitans, according to The New History Of Tang Dynasty. They could be related to the ancient 'Dingling' people (while Dingling was said to be derived from the ancient Chi-di people who were of the same Zhou royal family name of 'Ji' and had intermarriage with the Jinn principality). They shared the same language as the Mohe [Malgal] people. They dwelled in the upper Heilongjiang River, to the east of the Turks, the west of the Mohe [Malgal], and the north of the Khitans. There were over 20 Shiwei tribes on record, including Mengwu Shiwei. They first came to Tang Dynasty during the 5th year of Tang Emperor Taizong's reign. The Shiwei people came to Tang court over a dozen time. By the 4th year of Zhenyuan Era, Xi joined Shiwei in attacking Zhengwu Governor office. The Ruzhen (Nuzhen), i.e., the Jurchens The Sumuo group of the Huji people was called the Bohai (Parhae) during Tang Dynasty, and the Ruzhen (Nuzhen) during Song Dynasty. Po'hai continued for a dozen generations till it was destroyed by the Khitans. During the Five Dynasties time period, the Khitans took over the Po'hai land. The Blackwater Jurchens who remained in the south, including the former Sushen territories, were subordinate to the Khitans and were named the 'acquaintance Jurchens' or the 'cooked Jurchens', while the remaining Jurchens living in the north, near today's Heilongjiang River, would be named the 'stranger Jurchens' or the 'raw Jurchens'. When the later Jurchens defeated the Khitans, the Jurchens sent an emissary to Bohai, saying that the Jurchens (Nuzhi) and the Bohai people were of same family. Jurchens' defeat by the Mongols would be after their 119-20 years of stay in China, and by that time, they had become very much sinicized. The other mistake they made was in relocating their capital from today's Beijing to Bianliang or today's Kaifeng. That move basically cut off their tribal and logistical support from their homeland in Manchuria. There is a need to touch on the hair style to determine the ethnicity of the ancient barbarians. There were the pigtail style of Tuoba, the cut hair style of the Xianbei and Wuhuan, and the cut hair and pigtail style of the Jurchens and Manchus, to state that both the Huns and the later Turks had in fact shared a similar hair style as the Sinitic Chinese, namely, no hair cut plus the bundling of hair. The difference between the Huns and the Sinitic Chinese was "hu2 [Huns] fu2 [clothing] ZHUI1 [back of the head] jie2 [bundling the hair]", while the Sinitic Chinese bundled the hair at the top of the head. As commented by historian Huang Wenbi, the Qiangic people in western China, who had been exiled there from the east as this webmaster had repeatedly said, shared the same customs as the ancient Yi people along the eastern Chinese coast, namely, they did not bundle hair and further had an opposite direction as far as wrapping the clothing was concerned, namely, "bei4? pi1?[dangling] fa1 [hair] zuo3 [left] REN4 [overlapping part of Chinese gown]". The Founding Father of the Jurchens History Of Jurchen Jin Dynasty recorded that the founding father of Jurchens had two more brothers. At age 60 plus, the second brother, by the name of Hanpu, left Koryo for Manchuria with his younger brother Baofuli. The elder brother, A'gunai, fond of Buddhism, told the two brothers that he could not leave Koryo because their descendants would for sure reunite here in Koryo. Hanpu went to live among the Wayan people, a prominent Jurchen tribe in Manchuria. The Mongols Attacks On the Jurchens The Jurchens had in early days defeated the Kitans in a seven-year war (AD 1115-1122) by means of an alliance with Northern Song (AD 960-1127), and founded the Jin Dynasty (AD 1115-1234). They subdued neighboring Koryo (Korea) in A.D. 1126 and invaded Song, while the son of defeated Kitan Liao ruler fled with the small remnant of his army to the Tarim Basin where he allied himself with the Uygurs (Uighurs) and established the Karakitai state (Western Liao Dynasty, A.D. 1124-1234). Genghis Khan declared war in A.D. 1211 on the Jurchens. The Jurchens had fights with the early 'Mengwu' people (led by Kabul-khan) in 1139 and in 1147, and they nailed Ambaki and Kabul-khan's elder son to wooden donkeys and hence were feuds of Genghis Khan's Mongols. The Tartars had assisted the early Jurchens in defeating the Mongol (Meng-ku) rebellions, handed over Mongol leader Ambakai (dispueted to have adopted tribal name of Tayichi'ut) and his son to the Jurchens for execution in A.D. 1150s, and dealt the remaining Meng-ku tribes a decisive defeat near Lake Buir in A.D. 1160s. In A.D. 1211, Genghis Khan held a khuriltai (assembly). (First assembly was in A.D. 1206.) When the new Jurchen Jin Emperor Wanyan Yongji sent an emissary to Genghis Khan, Genghis Khan refused to bow down to take the decree. He advanced into northern China to attack Jurchen Jin and defeated Jurchen General Hu Shaohu and his 300 thousand army. Many Khitans and Chinese joined the Mongolians to avenge on the Jurchens. This will include Genghis's later prime minister, Yeluchucai, and famous generals like Chinese brothers, Si Tianni and Si Tianzhe etc. At that time, Mongols, with aid from the Khitans and Chinese who served in Jurchen army, notably with the help of a Jurchen general called Ming'an, took over Juyongguan Pass of the Great Wall (near Beijing). Genghis Khan was wounded in Dadong and agreed to a peace with the Jurchens with the condition that the Jurchen princess be sent to him as a bride. He retreated back to Mongolia. The new Jurchen Emperor, Jin Xuanzong, however, made a strategic mistake by relocating his capital to Bianliang (today's Kaifeng), which essentially enraged Genghis Khan as well as cut himself from the Jurchen base in Manchuria. The successor Jin emperor would be defeated again later, but not until 1234. In A.D. 1213, Genghis Khan resumed warfare against the Jurchens. With three armies into the heart of Jin territory, in A.D. 1214, siege of Zhongdu (Beijing) began. Meantime, he devastated northern China, sacking numerous cities in Hebei/Shandong provinces, reducing them into all ruins. By A.D. 1215, Beijing (known as Yanjing) fell, and history recorded the horrors of massacre and suicides. The Mongolian army, short of grain supply during the siege, would line their soldiers up, select soldiers via one out of every hundred or so, and kill them for food. As to the residents inside of Beijing, hunger led to cannibalism, too, and at the time when Beijing fell, innumerable number of women and girls jumped down from the city wall to commit suicide. Some western traveller recorded that the human oil from burning those dead bodies had been so thick that it did not dissappear for a long time. In A.D. 1216, Genghis went back to Mongolia. Genghis Khan died in A.D. 1227 during his campaigns against the Tanguts. Since Western Xia had refused to provide troops in the war against the Khwarizm, and more over, signed another alliance treaty with Jurchen Jin, Genghis Khan readied a force of 180,000 troops for a new campaign against the Tanguts. Late in A.D. 1226, when the rivers were frozen, the Mongols struck southward. On the banks of the frozen Yellow River the Mongols defeated a Xixia army of more than 300,000. The Mongols killed the Tangut emperor in a mountain fortress. His son took refuge in the walled city of Ningxia. Leaving one-third of his army to take Ningxia, Chinggis sent Ogedei eastward, across the great bend of the Yellow River, to attack the Jurchen Jin. The Mongols, as a precautionery measure, marched southeast to eastern Sichuan Province, where the Western Xia, the Jin, and the Song empires met, to prevent Song reinforcements from reaching the Tanguts in Ningxia. Here he accepted the surrender of the new Western Xia emperor but rejected peace overtures from Jin. On his death in 1227, he outlined to his youngest son, Tului, the plans that later would be used by his successors to complete the destruction of the Jin empire. When the Jurchens were driven out of Bianliang or Kaifeng in A.D. 1233, they retreated southward to a small town close to the Song border called Caizhou (today's Lunan, Henan Province). The Jurchens sent a messenger to Song Chinese requesting for help in fighting the Mongols. Song Emperor Lizong flatly denied it, and more over, Song struck a deal withe Mongols in attacking the Jurchens together. Song would then play the card of allying with the Mongolians in destroying Jurchen Jin, and it even sent tens of thousands of carts of grain to the Mongol army in the besieging of the last Jurchen stronghold. With the Mongols attacking the north gate and the Song Chinese attacking the south gate, the Jurchens were completely defeated and the last emperor, Jin Aizong, committed suicide in A.D. 1234. The remaining Jurchen genegals and royal family members jumped to the river to commit suicides as well. There is a saying that the Jurchens who survived the Mongols had later retreated towards Manchuria. However, the truth of fact is that Manchuria was already in Mongol hands; besides, the Jurchens in northern China were already very much sinicized to be differentiated from the local Chinese. The Song Chinese's Game Of Triangular Warfare For hundreds of years, the Song Dynasty, built on top of Northern Zhou (AD 951-960) of the Cai(1) family, would be engaged in the games of 'three kingdom' kind of warfares. Northern Song (AD 960-1127) would face off with the Western Xia (AD 1032-1227) and Khitan Liao in a triangle, and then played the card of allying with the Jurchens in destroying the Khitan Liao. With Northern Song defeated by the Jurchens thereafter, Southern Song (AD 1127-1279) would be engaged in another triangle game, with the other players being Western Xia and the Jurchen Jin. Southern Song would then play the card of allying with the Mongolians in destroying Jurchen Jin, and it even sent tens of thousands of carts of grain to the Mongol army in the besieging of the last Jurchen stronghold. Soon after than, the Southern Song generals broke the agreement with the Mongols and they shortly took over the so-called three old capitals of Kaifeng, Luoyang and Chang'an. But they could not hold on to any of the three because what they had occupied had been empty cities after years of warfare between the Jurchens and Mongols. The Later Manchus The later Manchus could be just a kinsmen tribe of the original Jurchens, and at most descendants of the Jurchens who remained in the homeland throughout the Jurchen expansion in northern China during the period of 1115-1234 AD. Similar to the legends about the Jurchen founders, the ancestor of the Manchu founders, Bu-ku-li-yong-shun, had wandered into a village where he was taken in as a distinguished guest and given a woman for marriage. Bu-ku-li-yong-shun was said to have been born after his mother swallowed a red fruit dropped by a sparrow. Bu-ku-li grew up under the foot of the Changbaishan (i.e., snow-capped) Mountain. When he asked who his father was, his mother told him the sparrow story and gave him the last name of 'Ai-xin-jue-luo' which was translated into Chinese as the 'jin' or gold for Ai-xin and 'surname' for Jue-luo. Bu-ku-li-yong-shun, similar to the Jurchen founders, would somehow pacify the generations of fighting between this village where he took as home and two other neighboring villages. He was supported by all three villages as chieftan, called 'bei-le'. Hence the 'Ai-xin-jue-luo' tribe came into existence. Bu-ku-li-yong-shun descendants would relocate to a place called He-tu-a-la (i.e., later Xingjing). Jue-chang-an, the grandfather of later Nurhaci (i.e., Nu-er-ha-chi, 1559-1626), gradually grew in the tribal strength. A Ming Dynasty general (Li Chengliang) at Liaoxi, in order to suppress the Jurchen growth, would attack the grandson-in-law of Jue-chang-an. Jue-chang-an and his son died as a result of a conspiracy between the Huron Chieftan Ni-kan-wai-lan and Ming Dynasty General Li Chengliang. Nurhaci, around the age of 25 at that time, attacked Huron Chieftan Ni-kan-wai-lan to avenge the death of his father/grandfather. Ni-kan-wai-lan fled to the Ming territories, and Nurhaci wrote a letter to the Ming court asking for hand-over of Ni-kan-wai-lan. The Ming court, however, only condoled Nurhaci with 30 horses, two coffins, the post of 'dudu' (i.e., governorship) of Jianzhou-wei, and the title pf General 'Long-hu' (dragon and tiger). Nurhaci hence set up four banners of armies, trained his soldiers, and attacked the Ming border castle to have Ni-kan-wai-lan captured and executed. By late Ming Dynasty, three Jurchen tribes were known, Jianzhou (jianzhou Prefecture), Haixi (east of the sea [Huron Lake]), & Yeren (Uncivilized people). Under Nurhaci [Nurhachu] (1559-1626), the Manchus united various tribes and expanded their territory. Nurhaci first defeated the Ye-he Statelet at Huron Lake. The territories of the Huron Lake area was named Haixi-wei {garrison of west of the lake) by Ming Dynasty, where the Ye-he tribe was the biggest of the four subtribes in the area. The Ye-he tribe chieftan, considered a vassal of Ming, was jealous of Nurhaci's expansion, and he called upon an army of 30,000, including some Mongols, for an attack on Nurhaci. Nurhaci thoroughly defeated the Ye-he tribe. The Ye-he tribe promised to send in their daughter for inter-marriage with Nurhaci, but the Ye-he tribe then promised to marry the princess to the Mongols. (The Ye-he family would later produce the Empress Dowger Cixi.) By A.D. 1616, Nurhachu proclaimed the founding of 'Da Jin', namely, Grand Gold Dynasty, at a place called Xingjin. The Manchu claim of relation to the Jin dynasty of China was purportedly the justification for conquering China in the 17th cent. and establishing the Qing dynasty. In addition to the original four banners of yellow, red, blue and white, Nurhachu set up four extra embedded banners of yellow, red, blue and white. The so-called 'Eight Banner' system was used for organizing armies into eight columns. The Manchus set up eight Mongol and Chinese banners, respectively, on basis of the ethnic composition. Nurhachu, after making an oath of 'seven hatreds for the Ming Dynasty', led an army of 20,000 against the Ming border town of Hushun. Before arriving in Hushun, a Chinese intellectual, by the name of Fan Wencheng, came to Nurhaci's camp to serve as a counsellor. Nurhaci asked Fan whether Song Dynasty's prime minister Fan Zhongyan was his ancestor, and Fan replied 'yes'. Fan Wencheng somehow persuaded Ming general at Hushun, Li Yongfang, into a surrender. Nurhaci then defeated Ming relief armies to Hushun and killed three generals. When the news arrived at Ming court, Emperor Shenzong sent someone called Yang Hao to counter Nurhaci. Yang Hao, who had lost a battle to the Japanese in Korea, would lose the Battle of Saerhu. Though Yang Hao mobilized an army of 200,000, including 20,000 Koreans and 20,000 Ye-he tribesmen, Nurchaci used smart tactics and defeated the Ming armies one by one within a matter of half a year. Yang Hao was arrested and demoted by Ming court, and Xiong Tingbi was conferred the post of 'jing lüe' for Manchuria. After rebelling against Ming Dynasty and defeating the Ming army at the Battle of Sa'erhu in A.D. 1619 (?), they moved their capital today's Shenyang City, called Shengjin at the time. Southern Manchuria, Liaoning Province, was historically Ming Chinese territories. Nuerhachu later died of the cannon of Ming General Yuan Chonghuan at the battle of Ningyuan (today's Xingcheng, Liaoning Province). Yuan had built this kind of long range canon with the help of the Jesuits, and Yuan named it 'Red-Hair Alien Cannon'. Nuerhachu's successor, Huangtaiji, would first attack the Koreans and Mongolians, and then played a dissension to have Ming Emperor Chongzhen kill Yuan. In A.D. 1636, Huangtaiji changed their name to Manchu from Jurchen and declared their dynasty name of 'Qing', namely, clearness. After the death of Huangtaiji, Emperor Shunzhi would be enthroned. Huangtaiji's brother, Duo'ergun (Dorgon), would be responsible for pushing the war against Ming. The Manchus boasted of an army of 220,000 for the Eight Banners. (After taking over China, they had raised an additional army of 660,000 for the Green Camp Battalions.) The Manchus first used Khitan's Siniform script. The Uygur script indirectly influened the Manchus when they adopted the Mongolian script in 1599. (The Manchus finally adopted Chinese logographic characters.) In northern China, Ming Dynasty was already devastated by peasant rebellions led by Li Zicheng and Zhang Xianzhong. Li followed his uncle-in-law in rebelling against Ming Dynasty in A.D. 1628. After a defeat in Shenxi, Li re-organized his rebels in Henan Province. While in Henan, Li acquired two intellectuals, by the name of Niu Jinxing and Li Yan, and re-shaped his bandit approach. By 1644, he led an army of one million eastward. Li Zicheng sacked Xi'an and captured King Qin Zhu Cunshu, attacked Taiyuan and killed King Jin Zhu Qiushu. After conquering Daizhou Prefecture, Li Zicheng went all the way to attack Ming capital of Peking in the east. He sacked Peking (Beijing) and caused the last Ming Emperor Sizong (Chongzhen) to hang himself inside of Forbidden City in Beijing. Meanwhile, in the west, Zhang slaughtered 3/4th of Sichuan's population. (Sichuan was later filled up by migrants from Guangdong and Hunan provinces.) A Ming general at Ningyuan, Wu Sangui, was on his way to Peking to rescue Ming emperor, but he stopped at Shanhaiguan Pass when he heard of the fall of the capital. Wu surrendered to Manchu when he heard that his mistress was grabed by the rebel. After Manchus were invited by Wu Sangui the gatekeeper for Shanhaiguan Pass, the Manchus used the slogan of 'Restoring Ming Dynasty' to call for cooperation among Ming Chinese remnant armies in the wars against the peasant rebells. Duo'ergun would relocate Emperor Shunzi to Peking. When they came into China in A.D. 1644, they brought in maybe just tens of thousands of Manchu soldiers. The major armies among the Manchu were still of Chinese nature, and they pursued Li Zicheng to Xi'an. After a defeat in Tongguan Pass, Li fled southward to Jiugongshan Mountain, Hubei Province where Li was killed by local Ming warlords. Manchu-Ming armies went on to Sichuan to kill rebel Zhang. Then, they continued on to attack Southern Ming Court and slaughtered the city of Yangzhou on the north bank of the Yantze. Ming General Shi Kefa died during this battle. Then, crossing Yantze River, the Manchus slaughtered two more cities, Jiading and another Zhejiang city. The notorious slaughering of Jiading City was conducted by Manchu generals of ethnic Chinese background, in fact. Then, Wu Sangui would be responsible for fighting the new Ming Emperor who received support from a general under peasant rebel Zhang Xianzhong. But the new Ming emperor fled to Burma and was later handed over to Wu by Burmese king. Wu and another two Chinese generals would control southwestern China and southern China as the so-called Three Vassals for dozens of years. In southern China, General Zheng Chenggong rebelled against his father who had surrendered to the Manchus. He launched a war to recover Taiwan from the Dutch, from Dongshan Islands, Fujian Province. The Zheng family would rule Taiwan till A.D. 1683. Shi Lang, a general under Zheng's son, would defect to the Manchus and be responsible for taking over Amoy and Quemoy in A.D. 1680 and subsequent leading the Manchus landing in Taiwan. Ethnic contentions between Manchu and Han Chinese were intense. During the 266 years of Manchu rule, numerous Chinese rebellions had ocurred. The Manchu imposed a strict rule of haircutting. The Manchus had a special hair style: They cut hair off the front skull of their head and made the remaining hair into a long pigtail. The pigtail story might be related to the early Tobas of the 4th-6th century. The Tobas were called "suo nu", namely, pigtail styled robbers. The Chinese had no choice, either hair or head to be cut. The Manchu also adopted predatory methods of land deprivation. They set up a caste system in the attempt of avoiding the possibility of being assimilated by the Chinese. The first Manchu emperor had a famous story about marrying a Chinese woman called 'Dong Guifei'. After the death of this comcubine, Emperor Shunzhi purportedly went to Wutaishan Mountain as a monk. Dong Guifei could be related to some Manchu with inter-marriage with the Chinese from the Han Banner. Historians believed that Dong was a Manchu, but the populace belief was that she was a Han. Today, the Manchus had lost their ethnic identities. If anyone called himselve a Manchu, it would be for sake of child birth or college entrance quota. The Manchus may have lost their identies because they lacked a religion. The Hui Muslims could claim to be a Hui because they believed in Islam no matter how Chinese they look. The Manchus have nothing to cling to as a differentiation from the Chinese. TO BE CONTINUED !!!!! written by Ah Xiang |
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ECON 101:  US Interest Rate Down =  China Exchange Rate Up !
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Huanghuagang Magazine 
Republican China in Blog Format 
![At the time [when China fell under the alien rule],](http://imperialchina.org/0442201b51e71777df540167-resized.jpg)
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![Though, Anna Wang [Anneliese Martens], in her memoirs, expressed jealousy over Gong Peng by stating that the Anglo-American reporters had flattered the Chinese communists and the communist movement as a result of being entranced with the goldfish-eye'ed personal assistant of Zhou Enlai](GongPeng.jpg)
One more branch of early Mongoloids, about 10,000 years ago, were commented to have entered China's southeastern coastline with genetic marker M119. Li Hui, claiming the same ancestry as the Dai-zu and Shui-zu minorities of Southwestern China, firmly believed that his ancestors had dwelled in the Hangzhou Bay and the Yangtze Delta for 7-8 thousand years.
The people with M119 marker would be the historical "Hundred Yue Peoples".
Li Hui then pointed out that the ancient Wu people, with M7 genetic marker, came to the lower Yangtze area about 3000 years ago. While Li Hui claimed that the M7 Wu people had split away from the northbound M134 Sino-Tibetan people, historical classics pointed out that the Wu Statelet was established by two uncles of Zhou Dynasty King Wenwang, i.e., migrants from the Yellow River area.
